<포르트칼 개혁 총리>폼발(Sebastião de Carvalho, marquês de Pombal )

폼발(Sebastião de Carvalho, marquês de Pombal )

(13 May 1699 – 8 May 1782)

 

제1대 폼발 후작 세바스티앙 주제 데 카르발류 이 멜루(포르투갈어: Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal, 1st Count of Oeiras, 1699. 5. 13~1782. 5. 8)은 포르투갈의 정치가이자 실질적인 통치자 였다. 국왕 주제 1세 암살을 기도한 예수회를 추방했다. 주제 1세가 재상으로 임명한 폼발은 1755년 리스본 대지진으로 황폐화된 도시의 재건을 맡아서 도시중심을 현대적 격자 구획으로 바꾸었다.

초기 생애

기병대장이며 왕실 귀족이었던 마누엘 데 카르바요 아타이데의 아들로 태어난 폼발은 쿠임브라대학교에서 공부했다. 그러나 폼발은 학업을 포기하고 군에 입대해 상병계급까지 진급했다. 곧 군대생활에 환멸을 느끼고 군을 떠나 역사와 법률공부에 전념했으며 34세에 포르투갈역사대학에 입학했다. 1733년 폼발은 콘데 데 아르코스의 조카인 과부 테레사 마리아 데 노로냐에 알마다와 결혼했다. 그들은 쿠임브라 근처의 소레 마을로 이주해 농장을 마련했고 폼발은 이곳에서 학문과 농사에 열중했다. 1738년 리스본으로 귀향한 그는 삼촌의 도움으로 당시 국왕 주앙 5세의 총리였던 주앙 다 모타의 천거를 받아 영국주재 포르투갈 대사에 임명되었다. 폼발은 외교 경력을 통해 정치적 영역까지 활동범위를 넓혀갔다. 수차례의 외교적 협상과정에서 보여준 열정적인 업무 스타일로 두각을 나타냈으며 런던에 머물렀던 7년 동안 영국의 정치·경제·사회 현상을 면밀하게 공부했다. 1745년 리스본으로 돌아온 후 즉시 빈 주재 전권대사로 임명되어 신성 로마 제국의 마리아 테레지아 여제와 로마 교황청 간의 분쟁해결을 위한 중재자로 나섰다. ^[1]

총리 시절

주앙 5세가 죽은(1750. 7. 31) 후 왕위계승자인 주세 왕자는 즉위하자마자 폼발을 다른 2명의 총신과 함께 총리자리에 앉혔다. 폼발은 이때부터 포르투갈의 정치를 장악했고 국왕은 그에게 무한한 재량권을 부여했다. 그는 국내산업을 발전시켰다. 활발한 대외무역과 각종 개혁정책으로 국력을 키웠다. 1755년 11월 1일 리스본의 1/3을 잿더미로 만들어 놓은 대지진이 일어나 폼발의 개혁 작업에 제동이 걸렸다. 그는 즉시 군대를 동원하여 보급품을 공급하고 피난처와 병원을 설치했다.황폐화된 도시의 재건을 맡아서 건축가 에우게니오 도스 산투스의 설계에 따라 리스본을 최고의 도시로 발전시켰다. ^[2]

기병대장이며 왕실 귀족이었던 마누엘 데 카르바요 아타이데의 아들로, 아버지가 요절한 후 어머니는 재혼했다.

쿠임브라대학교의 교수이자 가톨릭 수석사제로 정치적 영향력을 가진 삼촌 파울루 데 카르바요는 폼발을 쿠임브라대학교에 입학시켰다. 그러나 폼발은 학업을 포기하고 군에 입대해 상병계급까지 진급했다. 곧 군대생활에 환멸을 느끼고 군을 떠나 역사와 법률공부에 전념했으며 34세에 포르투갈역사대학에 입학했다. 1733년 폼발은 콘데 데 아르코스의 조카인 과부 테레사 마리아 데 노로냐에 알마다와 결혼했다. 그들은 쿠임브라 근처의 소레 마을로 이주해 농장을 마련했고 폼발은 이곳에서 학문과 농사에 열중했다.

 

1738년 리스본으로 귀향한 그는 삼촌의 도움으로 당시 국왕 주앙 5세의 총리였던 주앙 다 모타의 천거를 받아 영국주재 포르투갈 대사에 임명되었다. 허약했던 그의 아내는 함께 영국으로 가지 못하고 1739년에 죽었다.

폼발은 외교 경력을 통해 정치적 영역까지 활동범위를 넓혀갔다. 수차례의 외교적 협상과정에서 보여준 열정적인 업무 스타일로 두각을 나타냈으며 런던에 머물렀던 7년 동안 영국의 정치·경제·사회 현상을 면밀하게 공부했다. 1745년 리스본으로 돌아온 후 즉시 빈 주재 전권대사로 임명되어 신성 로마 제국의 마리아 테레지아 여제와 로마 교황청 간의 분쟁해결을 위한 중재자로 나섰다.

 

중재의 성공 가능성은 매우 희박했으나 그는 모든 장애를 극복하고 여제의 동의를 얻는 데 성공했다. 또한 그곳에서 다운 백작의 딸 엘레오노라 폰 다운과 사랑에 빠져 1745년 12월 재혼했다. 그러나 오스트리아의 기후가 그에게 맞지 않아 전권대사직을 사임하고 1749년말 리스본으로 돌아왔다.

국왕 주앙 5세가 그를 좋아하지 않았기 때문에 잠시나마 폼발의 세력은 위축되었다.

 

그러나 주앙 5세가 죽은(1750. 7. 31) 후 그를 총애하던 왕비 마리아 아나가 그를 왕실회의의 일원으로 임명했다. 왕위계승자인 주세 왕자는 즉위하자마자 폼발을 다른 2명의 총신과 함께 총리자리에 앉혔다. 폼발은 이때부터 포르투갈의 정치를 장악했고 국왕은 그에게 무한한 재량권을 부여했다. 이른바 '폼발 후작의 통치'가 시작된 것이다. 폼발은 국내 행정개혁에 착수했으며 대외적으로는 포르투갈의 명성을 높이는 데도 성공했다.

 

그는 영국의 제조품과 교환하는 조건으로 영국이 상당량의 포르투갈 금을 가져갈 수 있는 특권을 부여했다. 반면에 특정 원자재의 수출을 금지하고 비단·모직·도자기·유리 산업을 육성함으로써 국내산업을 발전시켰다. 동방무역을 개설하기 위해 영국이 시도한 것처럼, 인도와의 무역을 위한 회사를 설립했으나 실패했다. 그러나 브라질과의 통상을 목적으로 설립한 '콤파냐 도 그랑파라'는 성공적이었다.

 

1755년 11월 1일 리스본의 1/3을 잿더미로 만들어 놓은 대지진이 일어나 폼발의 개혁 작업에 제동이 걸렸다. 그는 즉시 군대를 동원하여 보급품을 공급하고 피난처와 병원을 설치했다. 동시에 재해 발생 직후에 그는 이미 도시 재건계획을 구상해놓았다. 이렇게 해서 건축가 에우게니오 도스 산투스의 설계에 따라 중세의 리스본은 유럽에서 가장 아름다운 도시로 탈바꿈하게 되었다.

강력하고 효과적으로 위기에 대처하는 능력은 그의 위상을 한층 높여놓았고 국왕의 신임도 더욱 확고부동해졌다.

 

그러나 폼발의 부상은 처음부터 강력한 두 집단인 고위귀족층과 예수회로부터 질시와 견제를 받고있었다. 그러던 중 1758년 9월 3일 밤 국왕 살해 음모가 무산된 사건이 발생했다. 폼발은 이 사건을 빌미로 자신의 정적인 고위귀족들과 예수회파를 국왕살해 음모자로 몰아 제거해나갔다. 폼발의 영향력 아래 있었던 법정은 아베이루 공작과 타보라가(家) 사람들에게 유죄판결을 내렸으며 그들은 심한 고문 끝에 모두 죽었다(1759. 1. 12). 이어서 폼발은 예수회 인사들에 대한 박해를 시작하여 예수회 사람들은 대부분 로마로 추방되거나 일부는 유죄가 입증되지도 않은 상태에서 귀족들과 함께 투옥되었다(타부라 음모). 폼발은 절대적인 권력을 행사하게 되었다.

 

1759년 오에이라스 백작작위를 받은 그는 계속해서 대학교육 개혁, 상업교육의 도입, 무역회사 창설, 군의 재편성 등의 개혁을 단행했다. 1769년 9월 국왕은 그에게 폼발 후작작위를 내렸다. 그러나 1777년 2월 24일 주세 왕의 죽음과 함께 폼발의 모든 권력은 물거품처럼 사라졌다.

여왕 마리아 1세가 즉위한 후 정치범들은 석방되었고 폼발은 권력남용죄로 구속되었다. 1779년 10월부터 1780년 1월까지 재판부의 가혹한 심문 끝에 유죄판결을 받고 마리아 여왕에 의해 리스본에서 추방된 후 폼발로 내려가 1782년에 죽었다.

 

 

<출처: 정보- 책"역사가 기억하는 혁명의 물결 177~182쪽/ 자료수집-우리말 자료:다음백과-폼발 [Sebastião de Carvalho, marquês de Pombal /위키백과/ 영어위키백과>

 

D. Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal, 1st Count of Oeiras (Portuguese pronunciation: [mɐɾˈkeʃ dɨ põˈbaɫ]; 13 May 1699 – 8 May 1782) was an 18th-century Portuguese statesman. He was Secretary of the State of the Kingdom of Portugal and the Algarves (the equivalent to a today's Prime Minister) in the government of Joseph I of Portugal from 1750 to 1777. Undoubtedly the most prominent minister in the government, he is considered today to have been the de facto head of government. Pombal is notable for his swift and competent leadership in the aftermath of the 1755 Lisbon earthquake. He implemented sweeping economic policies in Portugal to regulate commercial activity and standardize quality throughout the country. Pombal was instrumental in weakening the grip of the Inquisition.^[1] The term Pombaline is used to describe not only his tenure, but also the architectural style which formed after the great earthquake.

 

Pombal, who was considered an estrangeirado, introduced many fundamental administrative, educational, economic, and ecclesiastical reforms justified in the name of "reason" and instrumental in advancing secularization. However, historians argue that Pombal’s "enlightenment," while far-reaching, was primarily a mechanism for enhancing autocracy at the expense of individual liberty and especially an apparatus for crushing opposition, suppressing criticism, and furthering colonial economic exploitation as well as intensifying print censorship and consolidating personal control and profit.^[2]

 

Early life

The Marquis and his brothers, the Patriarch of Lisbon and the Governor-General of Grão-Pará.

 

Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo (Portuguese pronunciation: [sɨbɐʃtiˈɐ̃w̃ ʒuˈzɛ dɨ kɐɾˈvaʎu i ˈmɛlu]) was born in Lisbon, the son of Manuel de Carvalho e Ataíde, a country squire with properties in the Leiria region, and of his wife Teresa Luísa de Mendonça e Melo. During his youth he studied at the University of Coimbra and then served briefly in the army. He then moved to Lisbon and eloped with Teresa de Mendonça e Almada (1689–1737), the niece of the Count of Arcos Sebastião. The marriage was a turbulent one, as his wife had married him against her family's wishes. The in-laws made life unbearable for the young couple; the newlyweds eventually moved to Melo's properties near Pombal.

Political career

In 1738, Melo received his first public appointment as the Portuguese ambassador to Great Britain. In 1745, he served as the Portuguese ambassador to Austria. The Queen consort of Portugal, Archduchess Mary Anne Josepha of Austria (1683–1754), was fond of him; after his first wife died she arranged for him to marry the daughter of the Austrian Field Marshal Leopold Josef, Count von Daun. King John, however, was not pleased and recalled him in 1749. John V died the following year and his son Joseph I of Portugal was crowned. Joseph I was fond of Melo; with the Queen Mother's approval he appointed him as Minister of Foreign Affairs. As the King's confidence in him increased, the King entrusted him with more control of the state. In 1740 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society^[3]

Maria Leonor Ernestina Daun, the Marquis of Pombal's 2nd wife.

 

By 1755, the King appointed him Prime Minister. Impressed by English economic success which he had witnessed as ambassador, he successfully implemented similar economic policies in Portugal. He abolished slavery in Portugal and the Portuguese colonies in India, reorganized the army and the navy, abolished the Autos-de-fé and ended the Limpeza de Sangue (cleanliness of blood) civil statutes and their discrimination against New Christians, the Jews that had converted to Christianity, and their descendents regardless of genealogical distance, in order to escape the Portuguese Inquisition.

Pombaline Reforms

The Pombaline Reforms were a series of reforms with the goal of making Portugal an economically self-sufficient and commercially strong nation, by means of expanding Brazilian territory, streamlining the administration of colonial Brazil, and fiscal and economic reforms both in the Colony and in Portugal.

During the Age of Enlightenment Portugal was considered small and lagging behind. It was a country of three million people in 1750; 200,000 people lived in the nation's 538 monasteries.^{[citation needed]} The economy of Portugal before the reforms was a relatively stable one, though it had become dependent on colonial Brazil for much of its economic support, and England for much of its manufacturing support, based on the Methuen Treaty of 1703. Even exports from Portugal went mostly through expatriate merchants like the English port wine shippers and French businessmen like Jácome Ratton, whose memoirs are scathing about the efficiency of his Portuguese counterparts.

The need to grow a manufacturing sector in Portugal was made more imperative by the excessive spending of the Portuguese crown, the 1755 Lisbon Earthquake, the expenditures on wars with Spain for South American territories, and the exhaustion of gold mines and diamond mines in Brazil.^[4]

The Marquis of Pombal Enlightening and Rebuilding Lisbon, by Louis-Michel van Loo and Claude Joseph Vernet; 1766.

 

His greatest reforms were, however, economic and financial, with the creation of several companies and guilds to regulate every commercial activity. He created the Douro Wine Company which demarcated the Douro wine region for production of Port, to ensure the wine's quality; his was the first attempt to control wine quality and production in Europe. He ruled with a heavy hand, imposing strict laws upon all classes of Portuguese society, from the high nobility to the poorest working class, and via his widespread review of the country's tax system. These reforms gained him enemies in the upper classes, especially among the high nobility, who despised him as a social upstart.

Further important reforms were carried out in education by Melo: he expelled the Jesuits in 1759, created the basis for secular public primary and secondary schools, introduced vocational training, created hundreds of new teaching posts, added departments of mathematics and natural sciences to the University of Coimbra, and introduced new taxes to pay for these reforms.

The Lisbon earthquake

Main article: 1755 Lisbon earthquake

Disaster fell upon Portugal on the morning of November 1, 1755, when Lisbon was struck by a violent earthquake with an estimated magnitude of 9 on the Richter scale. The city was razed by the earthquake and ensuing tsunami and fires. Melo survived by a stroke of luck, and then immediately embarked on rebuilding the city, with his famous quote: What now? We bury the dead and heal the living.^[5]

Portrait of the 1st Marquis of Pombal; Joana do Salitre, 1770.

 

Despite the calamity, Lisbon suffered no epidemics, and within less than a year it was already being rebuilt. The new central area of Lisbon was designed to resist subsequent earthquakes. Architectural models were built for tests, and the effects of an earthquake were simulated by marching troops around the models. The buildings and major squares of the Pombaline Downtown of Lisbon are one of Lisbon's main tourist attractions: they are the world's first earthquake-proof buildings. Melo made also an important contribution to the study of seismology, by designing a survey that was sent to every parish in the country.

The questionnaire asked whether dogs or other animals behaved strangely prior to the earthquake, whether there was a noticeable difference in the rise or fall of the water level in wells, and how many buildings had been destroyed and what kind of destruction had occurred. The answers have allowed modern Portuguese scientists to reconstruct the event with precision.

Anti-Jesuit

Having lived in Vienna and London, the latter city in particular being a major centre of the Enlightenment, Melo increasingly believed that the Society of Jesus, also known as the "Jesuits", with their grip on science and education,^[6] were an inherent drag on an independent, Portuguese-style iluminismo.^[7] He was especially familiar with the anti-Jesuit tradition of Britain, and in Vienna he had made friends with Gerhard van Swieten, a confidant of Maria Theresa of Austria and a staunch adversary of the Austrian Jesuits' influence. As prime minister Melo engaged the Jesuits in a propaganda war, which was watched closely by the rest of Europe, and he launched a number of conspiracy theories regarding the order's desire for power. During the Távora affair (see below) he accused the Society of Jesus of treason and attempted regicide, a major public relations catastrophe for the order, in the age of absolutism.

Portrait of the Marquis of Pombal.

 

The Jesuits and their apologists emphasized the order's role in trying to protect native Americans in the Portuguese and Spanish colonies, and the fact that the limitations placed upon the order resulted in the so-called Guarani War in which the Guarani tribesmen were decimated by Spanish and Portuguese troops. However, at the time such arguments counted for far less than charges connected with the Jesuits' alleged activities in Europe.

Pombal named his brother, D. Paulo António de Carvalho e Mendonça, chief inquisitor and used the inquisition against the Jesuits. Pombal was thus an important precursor for the suppression of the Jesuits throughout Europe and its colonies,^[8] which culminated in 1773, when European absolutists forced Pope Clement XIV to issue a bull empowering them to suppress the order in their domains.^[9]

The Távora affair

Main article: Távora affair

Following the earthquake, Joseph I gave his Prime Minister even more authority, and Melo became a powerful, progressive dictator. As his power grew, his enemies increased in number, and bitter disputes with the high nobility became frequent. In 1758, Joseph I was wounded in an attempted assassination when he was returning from a visit to his mistress, the young Távora Marchioness. The Távora family and the Duke of Aveiro were implicated, and they were executed after a quick trial.

Monument to the 1st Marquess of Pombal in the square with his name, Lisboa

 

The Jesuits were expelled from the country, and their assets confiscated by the crown. Melo showed no mercy, prosecuting every person involved, even women and children. This was the final stroke that broke the power of the aristocracy and ensured the Prime Minister's victory against his enemies. In reward for his swift resolve, Joseph I made his loyal minister Count of Oeiras in 1759. Following the Távora affair, the new Count of Oeiras knew no opposition. Made Marquess of Pombal in 1770, he effectively ruled Portugal until Joseph I's death in 1777.

Spanish Invasion

Main article: Spanish invasion of Portugal (1762)

In 1761 Spain concluded an alliance with France by which Spain would enter the Seven Years' War in an effort to prevent British hegemony. The two countries saw Portugal as Britain's closest ally, due to the Treaty of Windsor. As part of a wider plan to isolate and defeat Britain, Spanish and French envoys were sent to Lisbon to demand that the King and Pombal agree to cease all trade or co-operation with Britain or face war. While Pombal was keen to make Portugal less dependent on Britain, this was a long-term goal, and he and the King rejected the Bourbon ultimatum.

Portrait of the Marquis of Pombal.

 

In 1762 Spain declared war and sent troops across the border. While they were successful in capturing Almeida, they soon ground to a halt. Pombal had sent urgent messages to London requesting military assistance, but no British troops were sent, instead Britain sent William, Count of Schaumburg-Lippe and some of its military staff to organize the Portuguese Army.

Following the Battle of Valencia de Alcántara, the Spanish were driven back across the border. The Treaty of Paris called for the restoration of all Portuguese territory in exchange for the British handing back Cuba, and Almeida was evacuated.

In the years after the invasion, and despite the crucial British assistance, Pombal began to be increasingly concerned at the rise of British power. Despite being an Anglophile he suspected the British coveted Brazil and he was alarmed by the seeming ease by which they had taken Havana and Manila from Spain in 1762.

Decline and death

Marquis of Pombal mausoleum at the Igreja da Memória (in English, Memory Church) Ajuda (Lisbon).

 

King Joseph's successor, Queen Maria I of Portugal, loathed the Marquis. She was a devout woman and fell under control of the Jesuits, and upon her ascension to the throne, she did what she had long vowed to do: she withdrew all his political offices.

She also issued one of history's first restraining orders, commanding that the Marquis not be closer than 20 miles to her presence. If she were to travel near his estates, he was compelled to remove himself from his house to fulfill the royal decree. The slightest reference in her hearing to Pombal is said to have induced fits of rage in the Queen.

Pombal built a palace in Oeiras. The palace featured formal French gardens enlivened with traditional Portuguese glazed tile walls. There were waterfalls and waterworks set within vineyards.

Pombal died peacefully on his estate at Pombal in 1782. Today, one of Lisbon's busiest squares and the busiest underground station is named Marquês de Pombal in his honor. There is an imposing statue of the Marquis depicting a lion next to him in the square as well.

João Francisco de Saldanha Oliveira e Daun, 1st Duke of Saldanha was his grandson.^[10]